The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Map source: Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000, base map: ESRI

The above map is an extract from the Global Forest Cover map produced as part of FRA 2000. Please refer to FRA Working Paper 19 for a background to the production of the map.

Temperate, semi-humid; semi-arid and arid forests cover about 12 400 000 ha. Over 90 percent of them are hardwoods.

Certain types of trees predominate in various geographical regions due to differences in temperature, moisture supply, soil conditions and elevation. Some of the forests have been destroyed or severely degraded.

Five different regional forest types may be distinguished as follows:

The Caspian broadleaved deciduous temperate forests: These forests are also called the Hyrcanian forests. They are located on the south coast of the Caspian Sea and the northern slopes of the Alborz mountain range from sea level to 2 800 m altitude.

The Caspian forests area is about 1 900 000 ha. They extend for 800 km in length and about 25 km in width. Approximately 60 percent of these forests are used for commercial purposes and the rest of them are more or less degraded. The average annual precipitation ranges from 600 to 2 000 mm with a maximum in the west and a minimum in the east. These are the most valuable forests in Iran.

Arasbaran sub-higrophic forest: These forests, located in north-western Iran, look like the Hyrcanian forest but some of species such as Fagus orientalis and Quercus castaneifolia do not grow in the Arasbaran region.

Irano-Toranian evergreen and broadleaved forests: These cover an area of about 3 500 000 ha in the central plateau and mountainus part of the country. The region is arid to semi-arid and the annual precipitation varies between 100 and 400 mm.

Zagrosian broadleaved deciduous forests: The main constituent of these forests is oak, Quercus spp. They stretch from north to south along the Zagros mountains, extending as far as Shiraz. They grow under annual precipitation between 450 and 1 050 mm. They are subject to over-exploitation and degradation due to intensive human activities and overgrazing.

The Khalijo-Ommanian forests: This region comprises the entire southern part of Iran between the southern watersheds of the Zagros, the coast of the Persian Gulf and the sea of Oman. The climate is subtropical with hot summers. The average annual rainfall is less than 200 mm.

http://www.fao.org/countryprofiles/index.asp?lang=en&iso3=IRN&subj=5

closed forest

Broadleaved forests

Dense, two-level Quercus spp. forests grow on the sandy soil of the Caspian plain. The upper story consists of Quercus castaneaefolia. The lower story is very dense and consists of Buxus sempervirens, Gleditschia caspica, Diospyros lotus, and Albizzia julibrissin. In the lower storey and on the ground, the fern Pteris arguta and the grasses Oplismenus undulatifolius and Brachiara eruciformis grow. Great quantities of moss grow on the ground and on the branches of the trees, giving this forest a special appearance.

At the foot of the northern slope of the Alborz mountains in Mazandaran and Gilan provinces where sites are drier the Quercus spp. trees grow with remnants of Carpinus betulus. Towards the northeast, the climate becomes drier and the main species associated with oak is Zelkova carpinifolia.

On the steep slopes of the Caspian the Parrotia persica and Carpinus betulus forest with an abundance of Hypericum androasaemum and Primula heterochroma represents one of the important Caspian forests. Currently it is subject to overexploitation.

Quercus persica forests cover about ^ 850 000 ha. They grow in pure stands, mainly on the southwestern watersheds of the Zagros. On the Persian Gulf they receive annual rainfall of about 400 to 500 mm. They are overgrazed; however, the nomadic Kashkai tribes who use the acorns to make their bread have preserved them.

The larger Quercus spp. trees reach a height of 12 to 15 m and can cover up to 50 percent of the ground.

The characteristic species of this forest are Quercus persica, Acer cinerascens, Lonicera persica, Pyrus glabra, Pistacia Khindjuk, Ephedra ciliata, Ranunculus ficaroides, Gundelia tournefortii, Geranium tuberosum, Anemone biflora, Lris, Carex stenophylla, Astragalus fasciculifolium, Anemone coronaria, Viola modesta, Fritellaria imperialis, Bongardia crisogonum and Helianthemum salicifolium.

In some cooler valleys Platanus orientalis, Fraxinus oxycarpa and Salix aegyptica are found.

The beech forest of Fagus orientalis var. macrophylla is the most productive forest in Iran. Stratification in the canopy is well developed. The beech trees make a canopy 40 m in height and some trees attain 2 m diameter at breast height. There is a mid-level tree and shrub strata if there is adequate light penetrating the upper canopy. When the canopy is closed and the light intensity beneath it is less than 2 percent there is no herbaceous strata. The forest is well preserved.

On rich moist soil Fagus orientalis var. macrophylla grows in association with Epimedium pinnatum, Euphorbia amygdaloides, Sanicula europea, Iraea luteniana, Galium odoratum and Murcuriaris perennis. In this forest, some commercial trees are present at very low density including Acer glabra, Acer velutinum and Acer cappadocicum.

There are small areas of mangrove forests along the tidal zones of the sea of Oman. These have a total area of 15 to 20 thousand hectares of Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata. Originally there were about 200 000 hectares of Avicennia marina forests.

Open forest

Broadleaved

Groups of oak forests dominated by Quercus infectoria, Quercus libani and few other species are located in Kurdestan, West Azarbayjan, Kermanshah and North Lorestan where they constitute very special forests. The trees are scattered with a cushion of plants such as Acantholimon bromifolium var. ilamicum and Acanthophyllum squarosum.

Unfortunately, all these Quercus spp. are not of high wood quality. They grow at altitudes between 1 600 and 2 200 m. At the bottom of the valleys they grow with Juglans regia.

At altitudes over 3 000 m Carpinus orientalis in association with Quercus macranthera forms the highest zone of forest vegetation in the Caspian region. Trees are of small height and of no economic value. This association, with slight modifications, can be found north of Ardabil in Arasbaran.

In the eastern Zagros, at altitudes between 1 800 and 2 200 m, Pistacia mutica forms real forests. In the center of the Zagros Pistacia kKhindjuk joins Pistacia mutica.

The Khalijo-Ommanian vegetation or semi-savanna thorn forests occupy hot, dry regions of the Khalijo-Ommanian zone. These were savanna thorn forests but the drastic transformation of the natural vegetation resulted in the formation of hot, dry areas.

The main tree species are Acacia seyal, A. arabica, A. nubica and A. senegalis. Other plants are Stoksia brahuica, Periploca aphylla, Vitex pseudonegundo, Withania somnifera, Ziziphus nummularia, Olea aucheri, O. cuspidata, Cassia obovata, Thylophora tenuis, Boucerosia aucheriana, Telosma palida, Doemia extensa, Glossonema edula, Callotropis procera, Myrsine buxiflora, Salvadora oleoides, Caryopteris vallidhiana, Clerodendron priva, Euphorbia larica and Dalbergia sisso

Coniferous

Juniperus forests cover the high mountains of the Irano-Turanian region, Zagros and Azerbaidjan at 1 500 to 3 500 m altitude. They grow under 220 to 450 mm rainfall and average annual temperatures of 3 to 12o C.

The main tree species is Juniperus polycarpa with accompanying species Lonicera nummulariifolia, Amygdalus orientalis, Cotoneaster nummulariodes, Daphne mucronata, and Astragalus adsceneds. The forests once covered considerable area but now they are almost destroyed.

Other wooded land

 Shrubs

Shrublands of Pistacia mutica are located on the northern slopes of the Albourz mountains at altitudes between 1 600 and 1 800 m. Sporadic trees of Rhus coriaria and Celtis australis grow with them.

On the north-eastern boarder of Iran, north of Meshed, the edible pistachio nut, Pistacia vera, grows. Due to the harsh climate it looks like tall undergrowth.

Below the Quercus spp. forests, tall bushes of Amygdales scoporia and Acer cinerascens grow on the southern slopes of the Zagros. Associated species are Daphne angustifolia, Ebenus stellata, Amygdalus lycioides, Crataegus heterophylla, Phlomis orientalis, Rhamnus spatulifolia, Cotoneaster nummularifolia, and Carrigia orientalis.They are subjected to overgrazing from the point of view of soil protection.

A degraded and overgrazed vegetation of thorny bushes of Amygdalis reuteri, Berberis integrimma and Cratagus spp. also grows on the southern slopes of the Zagros and the southern slopes of the Albourz. The plants of this association that have been able to survive are those left by the animals in addition to a few bushes growing on steep, inaccessible rocks.

There are many Tamarix articulata associations found in the southeast on the borders of Afghanistan and Pakistan. The area is almost desert and slightly salty. About 36 species of Tamarix grow in Iran. Most of them are bushes although a few, such as Tamarix articulata and Tamarix stricta, are tall and of economic importance.

Tamarix macrocarpa and Tamarix tetrandra, for example, are the dominant shrubs in the bushy vegetation close to Lake Ghom. The lower vegetation consists of the herbaceous species Psilliostachys letpostachya, P. spicata and Aeluropus littoralis.

In the valleys with slightly salty soils, Tamarix spp. grow with Aeluropus littoralis, Suaeda spp., Vitex agnus castus, Lycium barbarum and Nitraria scuba.

In the Irano-Toranian region, Haloxylon spp. grow mostly on sand. The vegetation is made up of bushy and very scattered small trees. The following species can be found: Haloxylon ammodendron, H. aphyllum, H. persicum and Calligonum commosum. The haloxylons are very important for stabilization of sand dunes and soil protection.

The Ziziphus spina-christi shrublands are also called the vegetation of the Khalidjian region. This type of shrubland stretches from Qassre-Shirin toward Khuzistan and the coast of the Persian Gulf up to Bandar Abbas in the North. The climate of this area is subtropical. These shrublands are sometimes invaded by Prosopis stephaniana.

Other species include Imperata cylindrica, Cordia mixa, Fortuynis aucheri, Salvadora persica, Ranunculus asiaticus, Populus euphratica, Nerium odorum, Ebenus stellata, Convolvulus leicalycinos, Ochradenus baccata and Physorynchus brachuicus.

References

Anon. Undated. Sustainable management of natural resources: Forests. Teheran. Government press.

Forest and Range Organization. 1997. Some data of forests in Iran. Teheran. Ministry of Jihad-e-Sazandegi. The Islamic Republic of Iran.

Jafari M., Hosseinzadeh A. 1997. Present status of afforestation in I.R. of Iran. Technical publication No.176-1997. Teheran. Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands.

Mobayen S., Tregubov V. 1970. La carte de la végétation naturelle de L´Iran. Bulletin No. 14 Faculté des Forêts et Pâturages. Université de Téhéran.

Forests and the forestry sector

Resources Owing to extremes of climate, the Islamic Republic of Iran is sparsely forested, with around 4.5 percent forest cover and 4.5 percent other wooded land. Most of Iran¿s 7.3 million hectares of forests are found in the north bordering the Caspian coastal plain and on the northern slopes of the Alborz mountain range. The Zagros range in the west of the country also has significant areas of forest, though much of the Zagros has been converted to grazing land. Most of the forests are closed broadleaved deciduous forest, with the dominant species including Quercus castaneifolia and Carpinus spp. At high elevations Juniperus spp. forest is common. Some of the forests have been destroyed or severely degraded. The main factors in this destructive trend are overgrazing, clearcutting and conversion into rangelands, and exploitation for fuelwood. Industrial harvesting occurs only in the Caspian Forest. Because of the severe climatic conditions and forest degradation, forests in other regions are not exploited for industrial wood production. Commercial production in these forests is limited to non-wood forest products, which include natural colorants and dyes, henna, aromatic plants and essential oils, honey, pistachios, walnuts, gum and medicinal plants. Around 60 percent of Iran is arid desert or semi-desert, where vegetation is primarily sparse Acacia and Prosopis scrub.

Iran has an extensive conservation network comprising seven national parks and around 60 other protected areas. These encompass approximately 12 percent of the country¿s forests.

Since 1965, the Forestry and Range Organization has undertaken a number of programmes to establish plantations in the vicinity of large towns as green belts and forest parks. In the early 1980s a new programme was launched for tree planting in irrigated and non-irrigated areas. The aim of these plantations is to meet local needs for timber and environmental protection. An area of about 253 000 ha was planted during the period 1989 to 1992, during the first five-year socio-economic plan. By 2000, the total planted area reached almost 2.3 million hectares.

The government of Iran provides free seedlings to landowners to promote tree planting.

The shortage of adequate water resources is a major constraint to plantation development in arid zones of the country. The cost of site preparation is high and establishment of irrigation facilities is very expensive.

Products
The majority of Iran¿s industrial roundwood production is used for agricultural purposes such as posts and poles. Forest industries in Iran produce sawnwood and wood-based panels, as well as pulp and paper from hardwood species. Moderate volumes of forest products, mainly paper, are imported. Modest quantities of wood are burned as fuel.

Forestry policy, institutions and major programmes

The economic role of forests became important in the nineteenth century when the exploitation of the northern forests of the country, mainly for timber for export, was transferred to foreign contractors. In addition, before the nationalization of the forests in 1962 some landowners exploited their own forest lands. Although the High Council for Forest, Range and Soil was established in 1951 and forest management regulations were ratified in 1958, forest areas continued to be exploited by foreign enterprises and forest owners.

In 1959, the first forest management plan was prepared and implemented in the Caspian area. Forestry plans covered only limited areas until 1963, when nationalization of forests led to the preparation of forestry and exploitation plans on a large scale. Multiple-use forestry plans are now based on non-wood products with wood production exclusively to cover local needs for fuelwood and fine wood industry. Fisheries, apiculture, animal husbandry and fodder production are integrated in forestry planning in suitable areas.

Institutions
In Iran, forestry is in the hands of the Forestry and Range Organization, under the Ministry of Agriculture Jihad-e-Sazandegi. The Forestry and Range Organization gives special importance to rural development and people¿s involvement in harvesting and afforestation activities.

The main administrative and management body for conservation and protected areas is the Department of the Environment, which was established in March 1972. Its responsibilities include the conservation and enhancement of wildlife resources and the prevention of pollution. It also puts forward regulations on habitat management. Existing capacity for the enforcement of conservation legislation and regulations, however, is limited.

The Department of the Environment is divided into a series of divisions dealing with different environmental matters; of these, the Division of Parks and Wildlife is the main body undertaking protected area management. The division prepares recommendations for the establishment of reserves or changes in reserve classification. Before they are presented to the High Council of the Environment for approval, they are reviewed by all appropriate divisions of the Department of the Environment so that all government organizations with jurisdiction over lands proposed for protection have an opportunity to assess the impact on resources administered by their organizations.

Control of grazing and forestry within reserves is determined by regulations adopted jointly by the Forest and Range Organization and the Department of the Environment.

Research is conducted in ministries and universities. Almost all ministries have their own research institutes and centres. The Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Tehran includes the Department of Forestry and of Forest Economics which conducts studies relating to forest status and protection.

Policies
Forest protection is one of the most important objectives of the Forest and Range Organization. The government has a policy to engage local people in all forest activities, especially in forest protection, including fire prevention. Forest fires in Iran are generally caused by humans.

The main objectives of Forest Policy in the Islamic Republic of Iran are:

·         preparing integrated plans for all natural resources of the country and applying proper exploitation systems based on modern technology suitable for the sustainability of natural resources and increasing timber and fodder production for economical exploitation;

·         preparing and implementing agrosylvipastoral plans, especially in the Zagrosian vegetation region;

·         establishing wood industry units to create income-generating possibilities for forest dwellers;

·         establishing forest cooperative societies to manage, preserve, rehabilitate, develop and exploit the forest in collaboration with local people and within the conditions and limitations prescribed in the developed plans;

·         procuring technical facilities and required investment to develop road networks;

·         industrializing the traditional animal husbandry systems in the northern forests by creating income-generating possibilities and procuring animal husbandry facilities in marginal areas outside forested lands;

·         procuring the required equipment and inputs to implement the country¿s natural resources development plans;

·         improving timber production through mechanization and modern technology, and decreasing waste;

·         procuring the required facilities to replace fuelwood by other suitable kinds of fuel;

·         determining rational ways of exploiting forest by-products to supply local needs and export the excess materials;

·         extending agroforestry, the plantation of multiple-use wood species and the plantation of fast-growing tree species to meet timber needs through short and medium rotations;

·         preserving rare forest communities and species as national reserves;

·         promotion of State, private and cooperative investment in developing, rehabilitating and utilizing all touristic areas and landscapes of the country;

·         promoting training and extension programmes and awareness raising about the importance of natural resources preservation and rehabilitation. Local cooperatives have recently undertaken the implementation of forestry management plans, which helps to prevent conversion of forest lands into agricultural lands and to improve rural people¿s livelihoods. Since 1986, 18 plans covering 130 000 ha have been transferred to 18 cooperatives with more than 5 000 members.

Legislation
Constitutional Act No. 50 states that all citizens are required to honour the conservation of nature and natural resources. The first wildlife reserves were established in 1927. In 1956 the Game Council was created with a policy to set up hunting centres for the protection of endangered species and the control of hunting. In 1967, the Game and Fish Department was empowered by law to declare certain areas for the protection of flora and fauna. The Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act, 1974 identifies four categories of protected natural areas: national park, wildlife refuge, protected area and national nature monument. The Law of Protection and Exploitation of Forest and Range, enacted in 1967, includes specific legislation relating to areas which may be declared as forest parks. They are administered by the Forestry and Range Organization and are maintained as parks designated primarily for recreation, although they often include important representatives of unique woodland stand types.

Geographic description

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Map source: Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000, base map: ESRI

The Islamic Republic of Iran is located in south-western Asia and has an area of about 1 633 190 km². It is bordered on the north by Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, and the Caspian Sea; on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan; on the south by the Gulf of Oman, the Strait of Hormuz, and the Persian Gulf; and on the west by Iraq and Turkey.

Iran is a land of diverse topography, ranging from high, snow-capped mountains to fertile valleys to barren deserts. The centre of the country is a high (about 1 200 m above sea level) plateau, ringed by mountain chains. Much of the plateau consists of desert, the Dasht-e Kavir, covered mainly with salt, and the Dasht-e Lut, covered largely with sand and rocks.

In the north, to the south of the Caspian Sea, are the Elburz Mountains, forming a barrier between the low Caspian coast and the interior. Mount Damavand rises to 5 604 m, forming Iran´s highest peak. Prevailing winds from the north-west bring plentiful moisture to the Caspian coast and the northern slopes of the mountains.

The Zagros Mountains extend to the south-east from Turkey and Azerbaijan along the country´s western border to the Persian Gulf. Smaller mountain ranges lie along the Gulf of Oman and the borders with Afghanistan and Pakistan. The Khuzistan Plain lies at the north end of the Persian Gulf, between the border of Iraq and the Zagros Mountains.

Iran´s climate is varied due to its topography. The area along the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman can be extremely hot and humid with average summer temperatures up to 35° C. The central highland, because of its elevation, is temperate but extremely arid. Tehran´s average temperature ranges from -3° to 7° C in January and 22° to 37° C in July.

The Elburz Mountains can be very cold, with temperatures occasionally falling as low as -9° C. The Caspian Sea coast, on the other hand, is mild with temperatures seldom above 32° C or below freezing.

Most of the Interior Plateau has a very dry climate. Teheran, which lies at the foot of the Elburz Mountains, receives about 250 mm of rain a year, but the deserts to the south and east average only about 50 mm of rainfall yearly. Abadan, on the Persian Gulf, receives less than 200 mm. The Caspian coast is the one area receives abundant rainfall, averaging 1 000 mm a year.

Ecological zones

The map below shows the ecological zones, as shown on the FAO global map of ecological zones produced as part of the FRA 2000. Please refer to FRA Working Paper 20 for further information on the Global Ecological Zone map.

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Map source: Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000, base map: ESRI